What Are Some Distinctive Elements of Fifthcentury Teotihuacãƒâ¡n Art From the Valley of Mexico?

Highlands plateau in key Mexico

The lake system inside the Valley of Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest in around 1519.

The Valley of Mexico basin, ca. 1519

The Valley of Mexico (Spanish: Valle de México) is a highlands plateau in primal United mexican states roughly coterminous with nowadays-day United mexican states City and the eastern half of the State of Mexico. Surrounded by mountains and volcanoes, the Valley of United mexican states was a centre for several pre-Columbian civilizations, including Teotihuacan, the Toltec, and the Aztec. The ancient Aztec term Anahuac ('Country Betwixt the Waters') and the phrase Basin of Mexico are both used at times to refer to the Valley of Mexico. The Bowl of Mexico became a well known site that epitomized the scene of early Classic Mesoamerican cultural development equally well.

The Valley of Mexico is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.^{[1] [2]} The valley contains most of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area, as well as parts of the Country of Mexico, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, and Puebla. The Basin of Mexico covers approximately 9,600 km² (3,700 sq mi) in the NNE-SSW direction with length to width dimensions of approximately 125 km (78 mi) to 75 km (47 mi)^[3] The Valley of United mexican states can be subdivided into four basins, but the largest and most-studied is the expanse that contains Mexico Metropolis. This department of the valley in item is colloquially referred to as the "Valley of Mexico".^[4] The valley has a minimum pinnacle of 2,200 meters (7,200 ft) to a higher place sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over five,000 meters (sixteen,000 ft).^[5] It is an enclosed valley with no natural outlet for h2o to catamenia to the sea although there is a gap to the northward where there is a loftier mesa only no high mountain peaks. Within this vulnerable watershed all the native fishes were extinct by the stop of the 20th century.^[half-dozen] Hydrologically, the valley has three features. The first feature is the lakebeds of five now-extinct lakes, which are located in the southernmost and largest of the four sub-basins. The other 2 features are piedmont, and the mountainsides that collect the precipitation that eventually flows to the lake area. These last two are constitute in all four of the sub-basins of the valley.^{[one] [4]} Today, the Valley drains through a series of bogus canals to the Tula River, and eventually the Pánuco River and the Gulf of Mexico. Seismic activity is frequent here, and the valley is an earthquake-prone zone.^[7]

The valley has been inhabited for at least 12,000 years, attracting humans with its mild climate (boilerplate temperatures between 12 and 15 °C, or 54 and 59 °F), arable game and ability to support large-scale agriculture.^{[eight] [ix]} Civilizations that have arisen in this area include the Teotihuacan (800 BC to 800 AD) the Toltec Empire (10th to 13th century) and the Aztec Empire (1325 to 1521).^[eight] When the Spaniards arrived in the Valley of Mexico, it had i of the highest population concentrations in the world with near ane million people.^[ii] After the Conquest, the Spaniards rebuilt the largest and most ascendant city here, Tenochtitlan, renaming it Mexico City. The valley used to contain five lakes called Lake Zumpango, Lake Xaltocan, Lake Xochimilco, Lake Chalco and the largest, Texcoco, covering about 1,500 square kilometers (580 sq mi) of the valley floor,^[2] simply as the Spaniards expanded United mexican states City, they began to bleed the lakes' waters to control flooding.^[8] Although violence and disease significantly lowered the population of the valley after the Conquest, past 1900 it was once again over one one thousand thousand people.^[ten] The 20th and 21st centuries have seen an explosion of population in the valley forth with the growth of industry. Since 1900, the population has doubled every xv years. Today, around 21 million people live in the United mexican states Urban center Metropolitan Expanse which extends throughout almost all of the valley into the states of Mexico and Hidalgo.^[two]

The growth of a major urban industrial centre in an enclosed bowl has created pregnant air and h2o quality problems for the valley. Air current patterns and thermal inversions trap contaminants in the valley. Over-extraction of ground h2o has caused new flooding problems for the urban center every bit it sinks beneath the historic lake floor. This causes stress on the valley's drainage system, requiring new tunnels and canals to be built.^{[7] [11]}

History of human habitation [edit]

First human abode [edit]

The Valley of Mexico attracted prehistoric humans considering the region was rich in biodiversity and had the capacity of growing substantial crops.^[8] Generally speaking, humans in Mesoamerica, including central Mexico, began to leave a hunter-gatherer being in favor of agronomics sometime betwixt the terminate of the Pleistocene epoch and the start of the Holocene.^[9] The oldest known human being settlement in the Valley of Mexico is located in Tlapacoya, located on what was the edge of Lake Chalco in the southeast corner of the valley in contemporary Mexico State. There is reliable archeological evidence to advise that the site dates equally far back equally 12,000 BC. Afterward ten,000 BC, the number of artifacts establish increases significantly. There are also other early on sites such equally those in Tepexpan, Los Reyes Acozac, San Bartolo Atepehuacan, Chimalhuacán and Los Reyes La Paz but they remain undated. Human remains and artifacts such as obsidian blades take been found at the Tlapacoya site that has been dated every bit far back every bit 20,000 BC, when the valley was semi-barren and contained species like camels, bison and horses that could be hunted by man. However, the precise dating of these artifacts has been disputed.^[9]

A Columbian mammoth jaw excavated at Tocuila

Giant Columbian mammoths once populated the surface area, and the valley contains the most extensive mammoth kill sites in United mexican states. Most of the sites are located on what were the shores of Lake Texcoco in the north of the Federal District and the adjacent municipalities of Mexico State such as in Santa Isabel Ixtapan, Los Reyes Acozac, Tepexpan and Tlanepantla.^[12] Mammoth basic are still occasionally plant in farmland hither. They have been discovered in many parts of the Federal District itself, peculiarly during the construction of the city'southward Metro lines and in the neighborhoods of Del Valle in the center, Lindavista to the center-due north and Coyoacán in the due south of the city. The symbol for Line 4's Talisman station of the United mexican states City Metro is a mammoth, due to the fact that so many basic were uncovered during its construction.^[thirteen] Yet, the richest site for mammoth remains in the valley is at the Paleontological Museum in Tocuila, a 45-hectare (110-acre) site located near the town of Texcoco in Mexico Country.^[12] Although there is some show around the quondam lakeshores that the first populations hither survived by hunting, gathering, and possibly past scavenging, evidence from this time period is scarce.^[9]

Pre-Teotihuacan [edit]

Ceramic art recovered from Tlatilco, c.  1300–800 BC

Tlatilco was a large pre-Columbian village and culture in the Valley of United mexican states situated virtually the modernistic-24-hour interval boondocks of the same name in the Mexican Federal District. It was one of the first pregnant population centers to arise in the valley, flourishing on the western shore of Lake Texcoco during the Middle Pre-Classic period,^[fourteen] betwixt 1200 BC and 200 BC.^[15] It was originally classified as a necropolis when information technology was first excavated, but it was adamant that the many burials there were under houses of which nothing remains. Information technology was then classified equally a major chiefdom center. The Tlatilcans were an agricultural people growing beans, amaranth, squash and chili peppers, reaching their summit from 1000 to 700 BC.^[fifteen]

The next-oldest confirmed civilization is in the far due south of the valley and is called Cuicuilco.^[sixteen] This archaeological site is located where Avenida Insurgentes Sur crosses the Anillo Periférico in the Tlalpan borough of the urban center. The old settlement once extended far beyond the boundaries of the current site, merely it is cached nether lava from one of the volcanic eruptions that led to its demise, and much of the modern urban center is congenital over this lava. The settlement was located where an old river delta used to form in the valley with waters from Mount Zacatépetl located in what is now the Tlalpan Forest. Cuicuilco was believed to have reached urban center status by 1200 BC and began to decline around 100 BC - AD 150. Withal, fifty-fifty though the ceremonial pyramid was abandoned, the site remained a location to leave offerings up to Advertisement 400, although lava from the nearby Xitle volcano completely covered it.^[16]

Teotihuacan and the Toltecs [edit]

Around 2,000 years ago, the Valley of Mexico became one of the world's most densely populated areas and has remained so since.^[2] After the decline of Cuicuilco, the population concentration shifted north, to the city of Teotihuacan and later to Tula, both outside the lake'due south region of the valley.^[x] Teotihuacan became an organized village around 800 BC only information technology was around 200 BC that information technology began to reach its height. When information technology did, the city had approximately 125,000 inhabitants and covered twenty square kilometers (viii sq mi) of territory. It was defended primarily to the obsidian trade and at its peak was an important religious center and pilgrimage for the valley.^[17] In the early eighth century, with the ascent of the Toltec empire, Teotihuacan ceased to be a major urban heart and the population shifted to Tollan or Tula on the northern front end of the Valley of Mexico.^[10]

Aztec Empire [edit]

After the finish of the Toltec empire in the 13th century and the refuse of the city of Tula, the population shifted one time again, this time to the lakes region of the valley. With this migration came the concept of a urban center-state based on the Toltec model. By the terminate of the 13th century, some l small urban units, semi-autonomous and with their own religious centers, had sprung up around the lakeshores of the valley. These remained intact with a population of about 10,000 each under Aztec rule and survived into the colonial period. All of these city-states, including the largest and most powerful, Tenochtitlan, with more than 150,000 inhabitants, claimed descent from the Toltecs. None of these cities was completely autonomous or self-sufficient, resulting in a conflictive political situation, and a complex system of agronomics in the valley.^[10] These city-states had like governmental structures based on the need to control flooding and shop water for irrigating crops. Many of the institutions created past these hydraulic societies, such every bit the building and maintenance of chinampas, aqueducts and dikes, were after co-opted by the Spanish during the colonial period.^[18]

The largest and most dominant city at the time of the Spanish conquest was Tenochtitlan. It was founded by the Mexica (Aztecs) on a small island in the western office of Lake Texcoco in 1325, and was extended with the use of chinampas, human-made extensions of agricultural land into the southern lake system, to increase productive agronomical land, covering well-nigh 9,000 hectares (35 sq mi).^[x] The inhabitants controlled the lake with a sophisticated system of dikes, canals and sluices. Much of the surrounding state in the valley was terraced and farmed as well, with a network of aqueducts channeling fresh water from springs in the mountainsides into the city itself.^[two] Despite being the dominant ability, the demand to rely on resources from other parts of the valley led to the Aztec Triple Alliance between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan at the beginning of the empire. However, by the time the Spanish arrived in 1519, Tenochtitlan had become the dominant power of the 3, causing grievances that the Spaniards were able to exploit.^[10] Notwithstanding, despite Tenochtitlan's ability outside the valley, it never completely controlled all of the valley itself, with the altepetl of Tlaxcala the most prominent case.^[10]

Past 1520, the estimated population of the valley was over ane,000,000 people.^[2]

Spanish colonial rule and the Mexico City metropolitan area [edit]

After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in 1521, the Castilian rebuilt and renamed Tenochtitlan as Mexico Urban center. They started with substantially the same size and layout as the Aztec city but as the centuries progressed, the city grew as the lakes shrank. Just after the conquest, disease and violence had decreased the population in the valley, especially of the native peoples, but afterward that, the population grew all through the colonial period and in the century after independence.^[10]

Past the early 20th century, the population of Mexico Urban center alone had risen to over i one thousand thousand people. A population explosion began early in the 20th century, with the population of the city itself doubling approximately every 15 years since 1900, partly attributed to the fact that the federal regime has favored development of the metropolitan area over other areas of the land.^[2] This has spurred investment in infrastructure for the urban center, such every bit electricity, other power sources, h2o supply and drainage. These have attracted businesses which in turn have attracted more population. Since the 1950s, urbanization has spread out from across the bounds of the Federal District to the surrounding jurisdictions, especially to the north into the State of Mexico making for the Mexico City Metropolitan area, which fills most of the valley.^[2] Today, this metropolitan area accounts for 45 per cent of the country's industrial activity, 38 per centum of GNP, and 25 percent of the population.^[2] Much of its industry is concentrated in the northern part of the Federal District and the bordering cities in the state of Mexico.^[7] While population growth has slowed and even declined in the city proper, the outer limits of the metropolitan area keep growing. Much of this growth has occurred on the mountainsides of the valley, in the form of illegal settlements in ecologically sensitive areas.^[two] Overall urban settlement in the valley has expanded from about 90 km² (35 sq mi) in 1940 to i,160 km^two (450 sq mi) in 1990.^[ii] The metropolitan area has about 21 million residents and about six million cars.^[19]

Air pollution [edit]

Mexico Metropolis is vulnerable to severe air pollution problems due to its altitude, its being surrounded past mountains and the winds patterns of the expanse.^{[seven] [11] [20]} The distance, with its low oxygen levels, makes for poor combustion of fossil fuels leading to unsafe levels of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide.^[7] The valley is surrounded past mountain ranges with ane small opening to the n. The surrounding mountains and climate patterns here brand information technology hard to clear out the smog produced.^[11] The valley has internal wind patterns which circulate around the valley without a prevailing wind to button contaminants in a single direction.^[7] The most significant climatic phenomena here is "thermal inversion," which is prevalent in the winter months when the cooler air of the valley is trapped by relatively warmer air above. Adding to this is that prevailing winds exterior the valley move from north to s, in through the Valley'southward i opening, where incidentally virtually of the region's industry is located.^[vii] These factors diminish in the summer and the situation is helped by the arrival of the rainy season,^[7] but the valley's southern latitude and the abundance of sunlight allows for dangerous levels of ozone and other unsafe compounds.^[20]

A NASA satellite image of smog in the Valley of United mexican states in November 1985

While still considered one of the almost polluted places on the planet, the valley's air pollution issues are non as bad as they were several decades ago.^[xx] One major problem that was brought under control was the atomic number 82 contamination in the air with the introduction of unleaded gasoline. Two other contaminants that take been brought under control are carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.^[20] The contamination problems that remain are primarily with ozone and fine particles (soot) (between 2.5 micrometers and 10 micrometers).^{[nineteen] [20]} Thirty to 50 percent of the time, United mexican states City's levels of fine particles of ten micrometers, the near dangerous, exceed levels recommended past the World Health Organisation.^[19] In the 1940s, before large-scale called-for of fossil fuels in the surface area, the visibility of the valley was nigh 100 km (60 mi), allowing for daily viewing of the mountain ranges that surround the valley, including the snow-capped volcanoes of Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl. Since that time, the average visibility has come down to well-nigh 1.5 km (5,000 ft). Mount peaks are at present rarely visible from the urban center itself.^[7] While reduced visibility in the valley was due to sulfur emissions in the past, it is now due to fine particles in the air.^[11]

The furnishings on humans living in an enclosed, contaminated environment have been documented, particularly past Nobel Prize winner Dr Mario J. Molina. He claims fine particle pollution is the greatest business organization because of lung harm.^[20] Co-ordinate to him, the city's residents lose about ii.v million working days every year due to wellness problems associated with fine particles.^[nineteen]

Hydrology [edit]

The Valley of Mexico is a closed or endorheic basin which geologically divides into three hydrologic zones, the depression apparently, which is essentially the bed of at present-extinct lakes, the piedmont area and the surrounding mountains. The former lakebeds correspond to the lowest elevations of the valley in the s are mostly clay with a high water content and are almost entirely covered by urban development.^[5] In the piedmont area, these clays become mixed with silts and sands, and in some areas close to the mountains, the piedmont is largely composed of basalt from one-time lava flows. The valley is enclosed completely past mountain ranges, from which menses rain and melting snowfall into the valley'due south hydraulic system. This groundwater menstruum produces a number of springs in the foothills and upwellings in the valley floor.^[v] This undercover menses is the source of the v aquifers that provide much of the drinking water to Mexico City located in Soltepec, Apan, Texcoco, Chalco-Amecameca and underneath United mexican states City itself.^[4]

Old lake system [edit]

Earlier the 20th century, the United mexican states City portion of the valley contained a serial of lakes, with saline lakes to the north well-nigh the town of Texcoco and freshwater ones to the south.^[5] The five lakes, Zumpango, Xaltoca, Xochimilco, Chalco, and the largest, Texcoco used to encompass about one,500 km^two (580 sq mi) of the basin floor.^[2] Small mountains such as the Sierra de Guadalupe and Mountain Chiconaultla partially separated the lakes from each other.^[21] All the other lakes flowed toward the lower Lake Texcoco, which was saline due to evaporation.^[2] The lakes were fed by a number of rivers such as the San Joaquin, San Antonio Abad, Tacubaya, Becerra, Mixcoac and Magdalena Contreras, carrying runoff and snowmelt from the mountains.^[2]

Long before the arrival of the Spanish, the lake arrangement had been shrinking due to climate alter.^[22] Warmer temperatures had increased evaporation and reduced rainfall in the surface area and then that the lakes' waters were shallow at nigh 5 meters (16 feet) deep as early on as the Tlapacoya culture, effectually 10,000 BC.^[22] During the Aztec Empire, the northern lakes were inaccessible by canoe during the dry season from October to May.^[10]

History of h2o command in the valley [edit]

For 2000 years, humans have been interfering with and altering the hydraulic conditions of the valley, especially in the lakes region.^[22] The Aztecs congenital dikes for flood command and to carve up the saline water of the northern lakes from the fresh h2o of the southern ones. After the destruction of Tenochtitlan in 1521, the Spaniards rebuilt the Aztec dikes but plant they did not offering plenty flood protection.^[23]

The inflow of the Spanish and subsequent efforts to drain the area for alluvion control was a major infrastructure project, called the desagüe , was pursued the entire colonial menstruum.^{[24] [25] [26] [27] [28]}

The thought of opening drainage canals offset came well-nigh after a flood of the colonial city in 1555. The start culvert was begun in 1605 to drain the waters of Lake Zumpango north through Huehuetoca which would also divert waters from the Cuautitlán River away from the lakes and toward the Tula River. This projection was undertaken by Enrico Martínez and he devoted 25 years of his life to it. He did succeed in building a canal in this area, calling it Nochistongo, leading waters to the Tula Valley, simply the drainage was not sufficient to avoid the Great Inundation of 1629 in the city. Another canal, which would be dubbed the "M Culvert" was built parallel to the Nochistongo 1 ending in Tequixquiac. The 1000 Canal consists of ane main canal, which measures 6.v meters (21 ft) in diameter and fifty km (30 mi) long.^[29] The drainage project was continued after independence, with three secondary canals, congenital between 1856 and 1867. During the presidency of Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911) drainage once more became a priority.^{[30] [31] [32]} Díaz completed it officially in 1894, although work continued thereafter.^[23] Despite the Grand Canal's drainage capacity, it did not solve the trouble of flooding in the urban center.

From the first of the 20th century, United mexican states City began to sink rapidly and pumps needed to be installed in the Grand Culvert, which before had drained the valley purely with gravity.^[23] Forth with the pumps, the Grand Canal was expanded with a new tunnel through the low mountains called the Xalpa to take the canal past Tequisquiac.^[21] Nonetheless, the city even so suffered floods in 1950 and 1951.^[23] Despite its age, the Grand Canal can still carry two,400,000 US gallons per infinitesimal (150 mⁱⁱⁱ/s) out of the valley, but this is significantly less than what information technology could bear equally late equally 1975 because continued sinking of the city (as much as 7 metres or 23 feet) weakens the system of water collectors and pumps.^{[23] [33]}

As a result, another tunnel, called the Emisor Key, was congenital to deport wastewater. Although it is considered the most important pipage in the country, information technology has been damaged by overuse and corrosion of its xx ft (six grand) diameter walls.^[33] Because of lack of maintenance and gradual decrease in this tunnel's ability to bear water, there is concern that this tunnel volition before long fail. Information technology is continuously filled with water, making it impossible to inspect information technology for problems. If information technology fails, it would nearly likely be during the rainy season when it carries the well-nigh water, which would crusade extensive flooding in the historic center, the airport and the boroughs on the east side.^[34]

Because of this, some other new drainage projection is planned that will price U.s.$one.iii billion. The project includes new pumping stations, a new 30-mile (50 km) drainage tunnel and repairs to the current 7,400-mile (11,900 km) system of pipes and tunnels to clear blockages and patch leaks.^{[33] [35]}

Over-pumping of groundwater in the 20th century has hastened the disappearance of the lakes. The old lake beds are almost all paved^[2] except for some canals preserved in Xochimilco, by and large for the benefit of visitors who bout them on brightly painted trajineras , boats similar to gondolas.^[36]

Desiccation has had a major environmental bear on on the Valley of Mexico.^{[37] [38] [39]}

Drinking water and sinking lands [edit]

Historically, Mexico Metropolis'south potable h2o supply came via aqueduct from the mountain springs on the valley sides like that in Chapultepec as virtually of the water in Lake Texcoco was saline.^[2] These were originally congenital by the Aztecs and were rebuilt by the Spaniards. In the mid-1850s, drinkable groundwater was found underneath the urban center itself, which motivated the large-scale drilling of wells. Today, 70% of Mexico City's water still comes from five master aquifers in the valley. These aquifers are fed by water from natural springs and runoff from atmospheric precipitation.

It was only when the population reached about six million that Mexico City started to need to appropriate water from outside the valley.^[2] Today, United mexican states Metropolis faces a serious h2o deficit. Because of increased demand from a growing population, increasing industry, and ecosystem degradation in the form of deforestation of the surrounding mountains, more than water is leaving the system than is entering. It is estimated that 63 cubic meters per second (1,000,000 U.s. gal/min) of water is needed to support the potable and agricultural irrigation needs of United mexican states City's population.^[2] The principal aquifer is being pumped at a rate of 55.5 one thousand³/s (880,000 United states gal/min), only is but being replaced at 28 m³/s (440,000 Us gal/min), or about half of the extraction rate, leaving a shortfall of 27.5 m³/southward (436,000 U.s.a. gal/min).^[2] This over-extraction of groundwater from the onetime dirt lake bed has been causing the state upon which the city rests to collapse and sink. This trouble began in the early 20th century as a outcome of the drainage of the valley for inundation control. Since the beginning of the 20th century, some areas of Mexico City have sunk nine meters (xxx feet).^[ii] In 1900, the lesser of the lake was three meters (9.8 feet) lower than the median level of the city centre. By 1974, the lake bottom was two meters (6.6 feet) college than the city.^[five] The first signs of dropping basis water levels was the drying up of natural springs in the 1930s, which coincides with the start of intensive exploitation of the aquifer system through wells between 100 and 200 meters (330 and 660 ft) deep.^[5] Today, United mexican states Metropolis is sinking betwixt five and forty centimeters (0.2 and one.3 ft) per year, and its furnishings are visible.^[2] El Ángel de la Independencia ("The Angel of Independence") statue, located on Paseo de la Reforma was built in 1910, anchored by a foundation deep beneath what was the surface of the street at that time. However, because the street has sunk around it, steps have been added to permit access to the statue's base.^[ii]

Subsidence of the valley floor beneath has acquired flooding bug as now much of the city has sunk below the natural lake flooring. Currently, pumps need to work 24 hours a day all year round to keep control of runoff and wastewater.^[2] Despite this, flooding is nonetheless mutual, especially in the summer rainy flavor, in lower-lying neighborhoods such as Iztapalapa, forcing residents to build miniature dikes in front of their houses to forbid heavily polluted rainwater from entering their homes.^[33] Subsidence also causes damage to h2o and sewer lines, leaving the water distribution organization vulnerable to contagion which carries risks to public wellness.^[5] Measures other than drainage have been implemented to contain flooding in the city. In 1950, dikes were built to confine storm runoff.^[5] Rivers that run through the urban center were encapsulated in 1950 and 1951.^[23] Rivers such as the Consulado River, Churubusco River and the Remedio River are encased in concrete tunnels which have their waters directly to the drainage system to exit the Valley. Two other rivers, the San Javier and the Tlalnepantla, which used to feed the old lake system, are diverted before they reach the city and their waters now flow direct into the Thou Culvert.^[40] No water from these rivers is immune to sink into the basis to recharge the aquifer. While the rivers and streams that menses down from the mountain peaks still begin the way they e'er accept, their passage through the shantytowns defective metropolis sanitation schemes that surround Mexico City turns them into open combined sewers. Therefore, their concluding stages are oft culverted or added to the existing major culverted rivers to proceed this water from contaminating the aquifer.^[40]

See also [edit]

• Mexican Plateau
• Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
• Valleys of United mexican states

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Diccionario Porrua de Historia, Biografia y Geografia de Mexico 6th ed. – Mexico, Cuenca de (in Spanish). Vol. three. Editorial Porrua. 1995. p. 2238. ISBN968-452-907-four.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l g n o p q r s t u five w x} "Mexico City: Opportunities and Challenges for Sustainable Management of Urban H2o Resources". December 2004. Archived from the original on December 7, 2008. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
3. ^ López-Acosta, Norma Patricia; Espinosa-Santiago, Alejandra Liliana; Barba-Galdámez, David Francisco (2019). "Characterization of soil permeability in the former Lake Texcoco, United mexican states". Open Geosciences. xi (ane): 113–124. doi:10.1515/geo-2019-0010.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Lafregua, J; Gutierrez, A; Aguilar Eastward; Aparicio J; Mejia R; Santillan O; Suarez MA; Preciado M (2003). "Balance hídrico del Valle de United mexican states" (PDF). Anuario IMTA. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2011. Retrieved Dec 1, 2008.
5. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Mexico City'due south Water Supply: Improving the Outlook for Sustainability. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 1995. ISBN978-0-309-05245-0.
6. ^ Noted in passing past Christian Lévêque, Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation: The Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa, 1997 "Introduction" p. xi.
7. ^ ^{a b c d e f thou h i} Yip, Maricela; Madl, Pierre (Apr sixteen, 2002). "Air Pollution in Mexico Metropolis". University of Salzburg, Republic of austria: 16. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
8. ^ ^{a b c d} Kirkwood, Burton (2000). History of Mexico . Westport, Connecticut, U.s.a.: Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated. ISBN978-0-313-30351-7.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} Acosta Ochoa, Guillermo. "Las ocupaciones preceramicas de la Cuenca de United mexican states Del Poblamiento a las primeras sociedades agricolas" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on February 25, 2009. Retrieved Nov 25, 2008.
10. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f g h i} Hamnett, Brian R (1999). Concise History of Mexico . Port Chester, New York, USA: Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN978-0-521-58120-2.
11. ^ ^{a b c d} Thielman, Jim (September 9, 1997). "Eurekalert". DOE/Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
12. ^ ^{a b} Anaya Rodriguez, Edgar (December 2003). "En la tierra del mamut". Mexico Desconocido (in Spanish). 322 . Retrieved November 25, 2008. ^{[ permanent dead link ]}
13. ^ Official site of the Mexico City Metro System https://metro.cdmx.gob.mx/la-ruddy/linea-4/talisman
14. ^ Encounter too: Archived December 21, 2014, at the Wayback Motorcar
15. ^ ^{a b} Neiderberger, Christine (1996). Due east. P. Benson and B. de la Fuente (ed.). The Basin of Mexico: a Multimillennial Development Toward Cultural Complexity", in Olmec Fine art of Ancient Mexico. Washington, D.C. pp. 83–93. ISBN0-89468-250-four.
16. ^ ^{a b} Lopez Camacho, Javier; Carlos Córdova Fernández. "Cuiculco" (in Spanish). INAH. Archived from the original on January 5, 2008. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
17. ^ "INAH- Teotihuacan Archaeological Site Museum". Retrieved Nov 25, 2008. ^{[ permanent dead link ]}
18. ^ Gallup, John Luke (2003). Is Geography Destiny? Lessons from Latin America. Washington, D.C., USA: Earth Bank Publications. pp. 74–89. ISBN978-0-8213-5451-3.
19. ^ ^{a b c d} Barclay, Eliza (June 23, 2007). "Clearing the Smog: Fighting Air Pollution in United mexican states Urban center, Mexico, and São Paulo, Brazil". Archived from the original on December 9, 2008. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
20. ^ ^{a b c d due east f} "Air Pollution: United mexican states City". July 29, 2003. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
21. ^ ^{a b} United mexican states Diccionario Porrua de Historia, Biografia y Geografia de Mexico-Tezcoco sixth ed (in Spanish). Mexico City: Editorial Porrua. 1995. ISBN968-452-908-2.
22. ^ ^{a b c} "Recrean 40 mil años de vida de la Cuenca de México". Revista Protocolo (in Castilian). 31. August 2008. Archived from the original on June ix, 2019. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
23. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Montoya Rivero, Maria Cristina (May–June 1999). "Del desagüe del Valle de México al drenaje profundo" [From the drainage of the Valley of Mexico to the consummate desiccation]. Mexico Desconocido (in Spanish). 30. Archived from the original on Jan 11, 2013. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
24. ^ Hoberman, Louisa Schell (July 1980). "Technological Change in a Traditional Society: The Case of the Desagüe in Colonial United mexican states". Technology and Culture. 21 (three): 386–407. doi:10.2307/3103154. JSTOR 3103154.
25. ^ Boyer, Richard (1975). La gran inundación: Vida y sociedad en México, 1629–1638 [The smashing alluvion: Life and society in Mexico 1629–1638]. Mexico Urban center: Sepsetentas.
26. ^ Musset, Alain (1992). El agua en el valle de México: Siglos XVI–XVIII [Water in the Valley of Mexico: 16th–17th centuries]. United mexican states Urban center: Pórtico-CEMC.
27. ^ Gurría Lacroix, Jorge (1978). El desagüe del valle de México durante la época novohispana [The drainage of the Valley of Mexico in the era of New Kingdom of spain]. United mexican states Metropolis: National Autonomous Academy of Mexico.
28. ^ Candiani, Vera (2012). "The Desagüe Reconsidered: Environmental Dimensions of Class Conflict in Colonial Mexico". Hispanic American Historical Review. 92 (1): five–39. doi:10.1215/00182168-1470959.
29. ^ "Mexico, Valle de". Diccionario Porrúa de Historia, Biografia y Geografia de Mexico (in Spanish). Vol. 3 (6th. ed.). Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa. 1995. pp. 2249–2250. ISBN968-452-907-iv.
30. ^ Connolly, Priscilla (1997). El contratista de don Porfirio: Obras públicas, deuda, y desarrollo desigual [The contractor of Don Porfirio: Public works, debt, and unequal development]. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
31. ^ Perló Cohen, Manuel (1999). El paradigma porfiriano: Historia del desagüe del Valle de México [The Porfirian paradigm: A history of the drainage of the Valley of Mexico]. United mexican states City: Porrúa.
32. ^ Agostoni, Claudia (2003). Monuments of Progress: Modernization and Public Health in Mexico City, 1876–1910. Calgary: University of Calgary Press.
33. ^ ^{a b c d} Ellingwood, Ken (April 28, 2008). "Draining the basin that'south Mexico City". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved November 25, 2008.
34. ^ Stevenson, Mark (June 19, 2007). "Mexico City Faces Threat of Floods". Play a joke on News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved Nov 25, 2008.
35. ^ "Mexico announces United states$1.27 billion bleed tunnel". Associated Press. August thirteen, 2008. Retrieved Nov 25, 2008. ^{[ permanent dead link ]}
36. ^ "United mexican states City's 'h2o monster' nears extinction". China Daily. Beijing. Associated Press. Nov 2, 2008. Retrieved November 25, 2008.
37. ^ Romero Lankao, Patricia (1999). Obra hidráulica de la ciudad de México y su impacto socioambiental. United mexican states City: Instituto Mora.
38. ^ Aboites Aguilar, Luis (1998). El agua de la nación: Una historia política de México (1888–1946) [The nation's water: A political history of Mexico (1888–1946)]. Mexico City: Centro de Investigación y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social.
39. ^ Villaseñor, Alejandro Tortolero (1996). Tierra, agua, y bosques: Historia y medio ambiente en el México primal [Earth, h2o and woodland: An ecology history of Cardinal United mexican states]. Mexico Metropolis: Potrerillos.
40. ^ ^{a b} Benitez, Fernando (1984). Historia de la Ciudad de Mexico (in Spanish). Vol. 9. Mexico City: SALVAT. pp. 46–47. ISBN968-32-0209-8.

Coordinates: 19°40′N 98°52′Due west  /  19.667°Due north 98.867°W  / xix.667; -98.867

gresswelljustong.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico

Share this post